FRESHMAN COMPOSITION, RHETORIC, GRAMMAR II

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INTRO. TO LITERARY RESEARCH & WRITING

INSTRUCTOR: James Maxfield

First, let’s review the first 4 basic logical argument constructions we learned in English 1010 or Introduction to Logic Remember, these logical forms must be followed precisely to be valid.

If X is true, then Y is true.

X is true.

Therefore, Y is true.

If Lord Burghley wrote a series of precepts of advice, then he must have expressed them to his children. Lord Burghley did write such a list, therefore Robert and Ann Cecil must have known about them. (Note: Oxford grew up with Robert and Ann Cecil in Lord Burghley’s house and Ann was Oxford’s first wife.)

If X is true, then Y is true.

Y is not true.

Therefore, X is not true.

If we assume that it was necessary to be highly educated in order to write Shakespeare’s works, then the writer (if it was the man from Stratford) must have attended a university. But there is no evidence to prove that the man from Stratford attended any university. And since the institutional records from the relevant time period are reasonably complete and reliable, we can infer that the man from Stratford did not attend a university and, therefore, could not have written Shakespeare’s works.

Another Example: . (Modus Tollens)

Major Premise: (Assumption) If we assume that the daughters of all educated men during Shakespeare’s time could read & write, and (Minor Premise/Fact) Shakesper’s daughters could not read and write. Therefore: Shaksper was not educated. [This is a valid argument. But in order it to be a sound argument, the assumed premise must be proved true.]

Either X is true or Y is true.

X is not true.

Therefore, Y must be true.

Example: Either the character Hamlet was modeled after the Earl of Oxford or it is from another source of origin. If we cannot find another source of its origin, then the Earl of Oxford was the model for Hamlet’s character. (Take care to avoid the "either-or" logical fallacy.)

If X is true, then Y is true.

If Y is true, then Z is true.

Therefore, if X is true, then Z will be true.

Example: If Shakespeare’s Sonnets were published in 1609, then they were obviously written before they were published. If they were written before they were published, then we must find another way to determine their date of composition.

Let’s now move on into some more advanced argument constructions and examples. These rules of logical inference can often be used to set up the entire argument for a short paper or for specific paragraphs of your "proof," i.e. evidence.

The Constructive Dilemma:

If "A" is true, then "B" is true and If "C" is true, then "D" is true.

If we know that either "A" or "C" is true,

Then: either "B" or "D" are also true.

If the Earl of Oxford organized and financed a company of players to put on plays for court, then Oxford must have taken some part in deciding what plays to perform and how to procure them. And if he also was known during his day for writing some comedies (now lost), then his players must have performed some of his own plays. By proving that Oxford did in fact finance and manage a company of players and if he was known as a writer of comedies during his lifetime, then either he decided what plays would be performed or his plays must have performed some of Oxford’s plays. (This is a valid argument; but in order for it to be a sound argument, each assumption or premise must be true.)

Example: If my gasoline contains ethanol (A), then my gas mileage will improve (B); and if my gasoline contains dry gas (C), it will absorb water molecules (D). It is the case that my gasoline either contains ethanol (A) or it contains dry gas (C). Therefore, either my mileage will improve (B) or it will absorb water molecules (D).

If it is the case that: "A" then "B" and if "C" then "D",

But if not "B" or not "D",

Therefore, Not "A" or "C"

If Christopher Marlowe was a spy for the court of England, then Walsingham must have known about it. And if Marlowe was taken to Italy, then his death was faked. But, if Walsingham did not know that Marlowe was a spy or that his death was not faked, then either Marlowe was not a spy or he was not taken to Italy.

[The following three rules of logical inference are not constructions themselves, but are valid operations in any argument and should seem obvious to you. ]

The Rule of Conjunction—that is adding two true statements together.

If we know that some statement "A" is true and another statement "B" is true, we can add them together in a sentence and make a valid (true) statement declaring that "A" plus "B" is true.

Example: Someone called Shakespeare wrote plays and sonnets.

We know there was a William Shaksper who lived in Stratford-on-Avon, England.

(Added together) Someone called Shakespeare wrote plays and sonnets and there was a William Shaksper who lived in Stratford-on-Avon, England.

The Rule of Simplification—just the reverse of Conjunction (see above)

If together "A" and "B" are true, then "A" is true alone.

Example:

The Rule of Addition (really more like disjunction)

If "A"; then, "A" or "B" (because only one element must be true with a disjunctive phrase to be a valid statement).

Example: If the Earl of Oxford was the first poet of his time to use the six-line stanza form used in the narratives Venus and Adonis and The Rape of Lucrece, then he Oxford used that poetic structure or he was the real author of the two narratives.

Major Premise: All professional writers can read.(Claim)

Minor Premise: No readers are illiterate. (Fact)

Conclusion: Therefore, no one who is illiterate can be a writer.

Major Premise: All nobles at the Elizabethan court were educated in Latin, English, and French. Minor Premise: The Earl of Oxford was a high-ranking member of court.

Therefore: He was proficient in Latin, English, and French.

Major Premise: By reading all of Shakespeare’s works, it is apparent that he was highly educated. (Supporting Facts: Shakespeare had the largest vocabulary ever recorded. He is also one of the highest in the coining of new words. It is unlikely that some of his specific forms of intimate knowledge, such as falconry, naval terminology, and Italian customs could be learnt from books or by listening to others talk. Conclusion: Therefore, it is likely that the man who was Shakespeare attended a university, participated in noblemen’s sports, and traveled to Italy.

Send mail to james.maxfield@tri-c.edu with questions or comments about this web site.
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Last modified: 04/30/06